mittvsfact.com – Andrew Johnson, the 17th President of the United States, remains one of the most controversial figures in American history. Serving as president from 1865 to 1869, his tenure was marred by tumultuous politics, bitter partisan battles, and a legacy shaped by the immense challenges of reconstructing the nation following the Civil War. Often overshadowed by his predecessor, Abraham Lincoln, Johnson’s presidency was defined by his unique background, his position as a Southern Unionist, and his contentious relationship with Congress and the Radical Republicans. A survivor of political battles, Johnson’s time in office was filled with highs, lows, and an unyielding drive to rebuild a fractured Union—though at times, his policies alienated both Congress and much of the country.
This article will explore Andrew Johnson’s life, political rise, presidency, and his enduring legacy. From his early years in poverty to his survival of impeachment, Johnson’s journey through the political storm of Reconstruction was one of resilience, division, and controversy.
Early Life: A Humble Beginning
The Struggles of Andrew Johnson’s Youth
Andrew Johnson was born on December 29, 1808, in Raleigh, North Carolina, into a poor and working-class family. His father, Jacob Johnson, died when Andrew was just a child, leaving the family in dire straits. As a result, Johnson received little formal education. He spent much of his early years working in menial jobs, including as an apprentice to a tailor. Despite his lack of schooling, Johnson’s determination and ambition drove him to educate himself, particularly in reading and writing, and he eventually became a skilled tailor.
By his early twenties, Johnson had left North Carolina and settled in Greeneville, Tennessee, where he built his reputation as a successful businessman. Over time, Johnson became involved in local politics, initially serving as an alderman before running for and winning the office of mayor of Greeneville in 1834. His political career steadily progressed, and he was eventually elected to the Tennessee state legislature. By the mid-1840s, he had secured a spot in the U.S. House of Representatives, establishing his foothold in national politics.
A Southern Unionist: Defying the Confederacy
When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Johnson found himself in an unusual position. As a Southerner from Tennessee, he was sympathetic to many Southern issues. However, he was staunchly opposed to secession, believing that it was unconstitutional and destructive to the Union. In contrast to many of his Southern peers, Johnson remained loyal to the United States government, despite the immense pressure to join the Confederacy.
Johnson’s loyalty to the Union made him a political anomaly in Tennessee. In 1862, President Lincoln appointed Johnson as the military governor of Tennessee after Union forces took control of the state. As governor, Johnson worked to secure Union loyalty within the state and began advocating for the gradual abolition of slavery. His efforts in Tennessee made him an important figure in Lincoln’s administration, and by 1864, he was selected as Abraham Lincoln’s vice-presidential running mate in his bid for re-election. This choice was strategic—Lincoln hoped that Johnson, a Southern Unionist, would help bridge the gap between Northern and Southern supporters of the Union.
The Assassination of Lincoln and Johnson’s Ascension to the Presidency
A Sudden Transition to the White House
On April 14, 1865, just days after the Confederacy had surrendered and the Civil War officially ended, President Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth at Ford’s Theatre in Washington, D.C. This left the country in shock and turmoil, and Andrew Johnson, as vice president, immediately assumed the presidency. Johnson was thrust into leadership at a time of profound national crisis, as the country sought to rebuild itself after years of bloody conflict.
However, Johnson’s rise to the presidency was not seamless. His background as a Southern Unionist and his deep-seated beliefs in states’ rights often put him at odds with the more progressive members of Congress, especially the Radical Republicans, who had a very different vision for how Reconstruction should proceed. While Johnson was committed to preserving the Union, his approach to Reconstruction would quickly come under scrutiny.
The First Steps of Reconstruction
When Johnson took office, the immediate question was how to reintegrate the Southern states into the Union. Johnson’s vision for Reconstruction was a lenient one. He believed that the Confederate states should be allowed to rejoin the Union with minimal federal interference. In May 1865, Johnson issued his Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, which offered pardons to Southern whites who swore allegiance to the Union and accepted the abolition of slavery. The only exceptions were high-ranking Confederate officials and wealthy landowners. Johnson’s policy aimed to quickly restore the Southern states to the Union, relying on local leaders and elites to help re-establish order and stability.
Though Johnson’s plan allowed for the re-establishment of local Southern governments, it did little to address the needs of newly freed African Americans. Johnson opposed measures to provide federal protection to freedmen, believing that such matters should be left to the states. He also allowed the Southern states to pass restrictive Black Codes, laws that severely limited the rights and freedoms of African Americans, including their ability to own land, vote, and move freely.
Clashes with Congress and the Radical Republicans
The Emergence of Radical Republicanism
While Johnson sought to restore the Southern states to the Union quickly and with minimal punishment, the Radical Republicans in Congress had a very different vision for Reconstruction. Radical Republicans sought a more comprehensive overhaul of the Southern social and political system, particularly in terms of the civil rights of freedmen. They believed that the federal government should play an active role in ensuring the rights and protections of African Americans, and they pushed for land redistribution and more stringent requirements for Southern states to re-enter the Union.
The differences between Johnson’s lenient approach and the Radical Republicans’ vision led to growing tensions between the president and Congress. Johnson’s veto of key bills, including the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which sought to guarantee citizenship and equal rights for African Americans, further strained his relationship with Congress. In an unprecedented move, Congress overrode Johnson’s veto, setting a powerful precedent for the legislative branch’s ability to counter a presidential veto.
The Fourteenth Amendment and Johnson’s Opposition
In 1866, Congress passed the Fourteenth Amendment, which granted citizenship to African Americans and guaranteed equal protection under the law. Johnson, however, opposed the amendment, believing that it would further concentrate power in the federal government and diminish the authority of the states.
Despite Johnson’s objections, the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868 and became a cornerstone of post-Civil War Reconstruction. The amendment provided African Americans with important legal protections, though in practice, the struggle for civil rights would continue for many years.
The Impeachment Crisis: Johnson’s Struggles with Congress
The Tenure of Office Act and Johnson’s Defiance
As Johnson continued to clash with Congress, the situation reached a boiling point in 1867 when Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, which restricted the president’s ability to remove certain officials from office without Senate approval. This law was aimed directly at preventing Johnson from firing Edwin M. Stanton, his secretary of war, who was aligned with the Radical Republicans.
In 1868, Johnson defied the Tenure of Office Act by attempting to remove Stanton and replace him with a more sympathetic candidate. This act of defiance led to Johnson’s impeachment by the House of Representatives, making him the first sitting president in U.S. history to face impeachment. The charges against him centered on his violation of the Tenure of Office Act and his refusal to enforce Congressional Reconstruction measures.
The Impeachment Trial and Survival
The impeachment trial was held in the Senate in the spring of 1868. Johnson’s opponents in Congress were determined to remove him from office, but ultimately, he was acquitted by just one vote. Johnson’s survival of impeachment did not restore his political power, however. His presidency was effectively crippled, and he was unable to exert any significant influence on Reconstruction or other matters of national policy for the remainder of his term.
The Legacy of Andrew Johnson: A President of Contradictions
Andrew Johnson’s presidency remains a subject of intense debate and controversy. On the one hand, Johnson was a political survivor who weathered fierce opposition from Congress and endured impeachment, emerging from these battles with his presidency intact. On the other hand, his lenient Reconstruction policies, his resistance to civil rights protections for African Americans, and his ideological clashes with Congress severely damaged his legacy and hindered progress in the post-war South.
Johnson’s presidency underscored the deep divisions within the nation during the Reconstruction era, divisions that would continue to shape American politics and society for generations. His policies allowed Southern states to implement discriminatory Black Codes and delayed the full integration of African Americans into American society. His commitment to states’ rights and his conservative approach to Reconstruction made him a polarizing figure in his time.
In the end, Johnson’s political survival in the face of such tremendous adversity did little to change the fact that his presidency is often viewed as a failure in terms of advancing civil rights and ensuring lasting peace in the post-war South. His clash with Congress and the Radical Republicans marked a pivotal moment in American politics, one that shaped the future of the country’s relationship between the executive and legislative branches.
Andrew Johnson, for all his political resilience, remains a figure whose presidency is often seen as a missed opportunity—one that could have significantly altered the course of American history but instead became a symbol of the difficulties inherent in Reconstruction.